1--Medical and Surgical Care During the Civil War (1861–1865)
The Civil War erupted due to a series of conflicts, including slavery, the events of the 1850s, Abraham Lincoln’s election. The conflict escalated after the Supreme Court decision on Dred Scott v. Sanford and the attack on Fort Sumpter by the Confederates; prompting President Lincoln to call for troops to suppress the rebellion. This image depicts the portrait of Dred Scott.
2--Medical and Surgical Care During the Civil War (1861–1865)
At that time, neither the Union nor the Confederacy was fully prepared for the war’s demands in terms of manpower, logistics, or medical resources. This exhibit explores wartime medicine, Black physicians' contributions, and the care of newly freed slaves.
3--Healing Beyond the Battlefield
In the early days of the Civil War, most people did not expect the conflict to last more than a few months, so the Confederate government failed to immediately establish many necessary military and medical infrastructures. Many soldiers were sent to civilian houses to receive medical care, resulting in both suboptimal care and the illnesses of many caretakers.
4--A War of Unprecedented Bloodshed
Fought in over 10,000 locations, the Civil War remains the deadliest conflict in U.S. history, with an estimated 620,000 deaths—about 2% of the population. Disease claimed twice as many lives as combat. In the aftermath, states like Mississippi spent a fifth of their annual budget on artificial limbs for wounded veterans. This image depicts three soldiers wearing leg prostheses.
5--The Harsh Reality of Civil War Medicine
At the start of the war, the U.S. Army had just 113 doctors. By its end, over 12,000 served in the Union Army and 3,000 in the Confederacy. Medical training was minimal, with doctors often graduating after just two years of lecture-based study, without clinical experience. Disease was still believed to stem from inflammation, as germ theory was not yet understood.
6--Transforming Battlefield Medicine
At the outset of the war, stretcher bearers were often regimental band members who fled during battle. Over time, a dedicated ambulance corps was established. By 1862, large field hospitals and medical transport by train and ship improved survival rates. General hospitals in major cities, such as Richmond’s Chimborazo Hospital, became critical in treating the wounded.
7--The Devastation of Combat Injuries
Most battlefield injuries were caused by the Minié ball, a soft lead bullet that shattered bones and carried bacteria deep into wounds. Amputation was often the only way to prevent fatal infections. About 30,000 Union soldiers underwent amputations, with survival rates improving when performed within 24 hours.
8--Why Did So Many Soldiers Die?
The two major causes of death in soldiers were battlefield injuries and infectious disease. Combat fatalities resulted from outdated tactics and slow evacuation of the wounded. Disease-related deaths were due to poor sanitation, overcrowded camps, malnutrition, and a lack of immunity to common illnesses. Medical infrastructure was unprepared, with recruits often inadequately health screened.
9-- Disease: The Silent Killer
Infection and disease killed twice as many soldiers as combat. Dysentery, typhoid, malaria, and pneumonia ravaged overcrowded camps. Without germ theory, physicians relied on outdated treatments, though some, like quinine for malaria, proved effective. This image is depicting doctors and nurses providing medical care in a field hospital during the American Civil War.
10--The First Major Medical Crisis: Bull Run (1861)
The first major battle of the Civil War, fought near Manassas, Virginia, revealed the unpreparedness of both Union and Confederate forces. Despite early Union advances, Confederate reinforcements turned the tide, forcing a chaotic Union retreat. The battle shattered hopes for a quick war, signaling a long and bloody conflict ahead.
11-- Medical Consequences of the Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run exposed the dire state of Civil War medicine. With no organized ambulance corps, wounded soldiers lay on the battlefield for days without care. Overwhelmed field hospitals lacked supplies, sanitation, trained personnel... The suffering led to urgent medical reforms, including the creation of a military ambulance system and improved battlefield triage.
12-- Medical Consequences of the Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run exposed the dire state of Civil War medicine. With no organized ambulance corps, wounded soldiers lay on the battlefield for days without care. Overwhelmed field hospitals lacked supplies, sanitation, trained personnel... The suffering led to urgent medical reforms, including the creation of a military ambulance system and improved battlefield triage.
13-- Medical Consequences of the Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run exposed the dire state of Civil War medicine. With no organized ambulance corps, wounded soldiers lay on the battlefield for days without care. Overwhelmed field hospitals lacked supplies, sanitation, trained personnel... The suffering led to urgent medical reforms, including the creation of a military ambulance system and improved battlefield triage.
14-- Medical Consequences of the Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run exposed the dire state of Civil War medicine. With no organized ambulance corps, wounded soldiers lay on the battlefield for days without care. Overwhelmed field hospitals lacked supplies, sanitation, trained personnel... The suffering led to urgent medical reforms, including the creation of a military ambulance system and improved battlefield triage.
15-- Medical Consequences of the Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run exposed the dire state of Civil War medicine. With no organized ambulance corps, wounded soldiers lay on the battlefield for days without care. Overwhelmed field hospitals lacked supplies, sanitation, trained personnel... The suffering led to urgent medical reforms, including the creation of a military ambulance system and improved battlefield triage.
16--Non-Combat Illness and Disease
Overcrowded and unsanitary conditions led to widespread disease. Common illnesses included dysentery, malaria, typhoid fever, and smallpox. Poor diet and vitamin deficiencies worsened survival rates. This image is depicting a Civil War military camp with soldiers waiting in long lines to enter a field hospital.
17- The Role of Quarantine and Public Health
Yellow fever, typhoid, and smallpox devastated troops, but quarantine efforts helped contain outbreaks. Benjamin Butler’s strict ship quarantine in New Orleans virtually eliminated yellow fever, marking an early success in public health policy. This images depicts quarantine efforts during the American Civil War to contain disease outbreaks among troops.
18--The Truth About Civil War Surgery
Despite myths, over 80,000 surgeries were performed using anesthesia, primarily chloroform, with only 43 recorded anesthesia-related deaths. However, without antiseptics, infections were common. "Laudable pus" (thick, white discharge) was seen as a sign of better outcomes, while “malignant pus” (thin, bloody discharge) indicated deadly infections.
19--Famous Medical Cases and Treatments
Quinine was widely used to prevent malaria, while morphine, chloroform, and ether provided pain relief. However, some treatments were harmful—calomel (mercury chloride) caused severe poisoning, leading to rotting gums and tissue loss. Early plastic surgery techniques were pioneered on wounded soldiers, such as Carleton Burgan, who underwent five reconstructive operations.
20--The Role of Quarantine and Public Health Efforts
Yellow fever, known as the "stranger’s disease," was prevalent in the South, killing over 10,000 people. Quarantine efforts, such as those implemented by Benjamin Butler in New Orleans, successfully curtailed outbreaks. The war marked the first large-scale use of quarantine and public health policies in U.S. military history.
Harriet Tubman - A Lasting Legacy
Born Araminta Ross into slavery, in Dorchester County, Maryland, , c. March 1822, Harriet Tubman was an American abolitionist and social activist.
Harriet Tubman
In 1849, Tubman escaped slavery to Philadelphia, only to return to Maryland to rescue her family soon after. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of Maryland, and eventually guided dozens of other enslaved people to freedom. Afterwards, Tubman made some 13 missions to rescue approximately 70 enslaved people, including her family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known collectively as the Underground Railroad.
Harriett Tubman - Dedicated her life to dismantling slavery
Harriet Tubman, emerged as one of the most fearless and effective abolitionists in American history. After escaping to freedom in 1849, she dedicated her life to dismantling the institution that had bound her and countless others in chains. As a conductor on the Underground Railroad, she risked everything to lead approximately 70 enslaved individuals—including her family—to freedom through a perilous network of safe houses and secret routes.
Harriet Tubman--AKA Moses
Known as “Moses” for her unwavering commitment, Tubman never lost a single passenger on her treacherous journeys, often relying on her deep faith, strategic brilliance, and steely determination to outmaneuver slave catchers and the oppressive Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Tubman’s courage and success in liberating others made her a symbol of resistance and hope for the abolitionist movement.
Harriet Tubman - a spy, a scout, and a nurse for the Union Army,
Beyond her work on the Underground Railroad, Tubman played a vital role in the Civil War, further cementing her legacy as a champion for justice. She served as a spy, scout, and nurse for the Union Army, using her knowledge of Southern terrain to aid military campaigns against Confederate forces. Most notably, she led the Combahee River Raid in 1863, an operation that liberated over 700 enslaved people—the first military action in U.S. history led by a woman.
Harriet Tubman was a champion of Justice - A Lasting Legacy
Beyond her work on the Underground Railroad, Tubman led the Combahee River Raid in 1863, an operation that liberated over 700 enslaved people—the first military action in U.S. history led by a woman.
Harriet Tubman - After the American Civil War
Harriet Tubman in 1887 (far left), with her husband Davis (seated, with cane), their adopted daughter Gertie (beside Tubman), Lee Cheney, John "Pop" Alexander, Walter Green, "Blind Aunty" Sarah Parker, and her great-niece Dora Stewart at Tubman's home in Auburn, New York
Harriet Tubman c. 1911
32--Healing Beyond the Battlefield: Dr. Charles B. Purvis
Purvis was born in Philadelphia on April 14, 1842. His parents were abolitionists. During the Civil War, Purvis served in the Union Army as a military nurse at Camp Barker. When he graduated from Western Reserve medical School in March 1865, he was promoted acting assistant surgeon with a rank of first lieutenant in Washington D.C. He served in this role until 1869.
24--Life at Contraband Camp
The camp consisted of one-story frame buildings and tents, with separate wards for men, women, and smallpox patients. It also housed a stable, kitchen, laundry, dispensary, and morgue. By late 1863, over 15,000 people had passed through the camp, and 685 resided there. This image is depicting Contraband Camp in Washington, D.C., in 1863, highlighting the efforts to provide medical care and shelter for escaped slaves and Black soldiers.
21--The Influx of Escaped Slaves
After the D.C. Emancipation Act of 1862, over 40,000 escaped slaves sought refuge in Washington, D.C. As the Union Army advanced, thousands of African Americans crossed into Union territory. They were labeled as "contraband." The growing numbers of “contraband” created a challenge for the government to balance wartime strategy with humanitarian aid.
22--Contraband Camp and Hospital
In response to the overflow of escaped slaves, during the Civil War, a tented camp and hospital were erected on a swampy parcel of land in northwest Washington, D.C. This camp was designed to serving thousands of escaped slaves and Black soldiers. Known as Contraband Camp, it was one of the few hospitals treating Black patients in the capital, with a largely African American staff of nurses and surgeons.
23- Contraband Camp
During the Civil War, a tented camp and hospital stood on a swampy parcel of land in northwest Washington, D.C., serving thousands of escaped slaves and Black soldiers. Known as Contraband Camp, it was one of the few hospitals treating Black patients in the capital, with a largely African American staff of nurses and surgeons.
25 - Harsh Living Conditions in Contraband Camp
The camp’s swampy location, poor sanitation, and overcrowding led to severe hardships. Tents were overcrowded, leaked during storms, and lacked stoves for heat. Supplies such as blankets and fresh water were scarce, with the only well often running dry. This image illustrates harsh living conditions in the Camp, highlighting overcrowding, poor sanitation, and resource shortages.
26 -The Hospital Workforce at Contraband Hospital
Contraband Hospital’s staff included military personnel, civilians, and volunteers. Initially, Black workers served as nurses, cooks, and laundresses, while white staff held leadership roles. Over time, African American surgeons and nurses assumed key positions. This image illustrates the diverse workforce at Contraband Hospital, highlighting Black nurses and surgeons in key roles.
27 -The Unprecedented Toll of War
The Civil War remains the deadliest in U.S. history, with 620,000 deaths—twice as many from disease as from battle. Mississippi spent 20% of its budget on artificial limbs in 1866. The war’s devastation forced medical innovations. This image depicts disabled Civil War veterans struggling to adjust to life at home, using wooden crutches to navigate their surroundings.
28 --Deadly Epidemics During the American Civil War
-Malaria: Affected 224 of every 1,000 Union soldiers, often contracted in southern swampy regions.
-Typhoid Fever: Over 75,000 cases in the Union Army alone, with a 56% fatality rate by 1865.
-Measles: Struck 67,000 Union soldiers, with fatalities twice as high among African Americans.
-Smallpox: Though a vaccine existed, many were unvaccinated, leading to higher infection rates among Black soldiers.
30--Alexander T. Augusta: A Pioneer in Medicine
Dr. Alexander T. Augusta, who was rejected by U.S. medical schools, trained and obtained his medical degree in Canada. In 1863, he became the first Black surgeon commissioned in the U.S. Army. Later, he taught at Howard Medical College and was the first Black officer buried at Arlington Cemetery.
29--Black Physicians in the Civil War
Black doctors faced racial barriers but made critical contributions to wartime medicine. At least 12 African American physicians served with the Union Army, while many others worked in contraband hospitals. Their dedication helped save thousands of lives. This image depicts Black doctors making critical contributions to wartime medicine during the Civil War
31--Healing Beyond the Battlefield: Dr. John Van Salee De Grasse
Born in New York City, Dr. De Grasse studied medicine in Paris and earned his medical degree with honors from Bowdoin Medical School in May 1849. After graduation, he practiced medicine in Paris. In 1863 Grasse served as an assistant surgeon with the 35th US Colored Infantry Regiment. During the American Civil War, he served in the Union Army as a surgeon.
33 --Healing Beyond the Battlefield: Dr. Anderson Ruffin Abbott
Anderson Ruffin Abbott was born on 7 April 1837 in Toronto. The Abbotts had left Alabama—as free people of colour. Anderson Abbott attended Oberlin College in Ohio, and medical school in Canada. He received his license to practice medicine in Canada in 1861. In June 1863 Dr. Abbott moved to Washington, D.C. where he received the rank of lieutenant as a contract surgeon. In November 1864, Abbott became surgeon-in-charge of Contraband Hospital.
34 --Healing Beyond the Battlefield
Cortland Van Rensselaer Creed an 1857 graduate from Yale, and William B. Ellis an 1858 graduate from Dartmouth worked in military hospitals, laying the foundation for future African American medical leaders. John H. Rapier Jr., and William P. Powell Jr, David O. McCord, an 1854 graduate of the Medical College of Ohio, also worked in military hospitals during the war.
________________________________________
35--The Role of Black Nurses
Many formerly enslaved women became nurses in Union hospitals, providing care despite harsh conditions. The hospital provided them with their first paid employment, helping them transition from slavery to independence while serving others who had endured similar hardships. Ann Bradford Stokes, serving aboard the USS Red Rover. She was among the first Black women to receive a U.S. military pension for her service.
36--The Legacy of Black Doctors during the Civil War
Despite discrimination, Black doctors and nurses played vital roles in Civil War medicine. Their service paved the way for future generations, leading to the establishment of Howard University’s medical school and the growth of African American healthcare. images depicting African American doctors and nurses playing vital roles in Civil War medicine, symbolizing their contributions and the foundation of Black medical education.
37 -- The Evolution of Freedmen’s Hospital
Contraband Camp was disbanded in December 1863, but the hospital continued serving Black civilians and soldiers. By 1865, it became part of the Freedmen’s Bureau and relocated to the former Campbell Army Hospital, offering improved facilities and a 600-bed capacity.
38--A Lasting Legacy
Freedmen’s Hospital moved to Howard University in 1868, becoming its teaching hospital. It continued serving the Black community of Washington, D.C. for a century before officially transferring to Howard University in 1961. Renamed Howard University Hospital in 1975, it remains a vital medical institution today for educating and serving African Americans.
38--A Lasting Legacy
Freedmen’s Hospital moved to Howard University in 1868, becoming its teaching hospital. It continued serving the Black community of Washington, D.C. for a century before officially transferring to Howard University in 1961. Renamed Howard University Hospital in 1975, it remains a vital medical institution today for educating and serving African Americans.
Freedmen’s Hospital moved to Howard University in 1868, becoming its teaching hospital. It continued serving the Black community of Washington, D.C. for a century before officially transferring to Howard University in 1961. Renamed Howard University Hospital in 1975, it remains a vital medical institution today for educating and serving African Americans.
